A metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) is a fundamental structure in modern electronics, defined by its layered composition of a metal gate, a thin insulating oxide layer, and a semiconductor substrate, most commonly silicon.

The oxide layer, traditionally silicon dioxide but increasingly high‑κ dielectrics in advanced technologies, acts as an insulator that prevents direct current flow between the gate and the semiconductor while allowing the electric field from the gate voltage to penetrate and control the charge distribution in the semiconductor.

This principle enables the modulation of conductivity in the semiconductor channel, forming the basis of devices such as MOS capacitors and MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field‑effect transistors).

MOSFETs are the backbone of integrated circuits, providing the switching and amplification functions that power microprocessors, memory chips, digital logic, and analog systems.

The MOS structure’s operation can be understood through energy band diagrams and capacitance–voltage (C–V) characteristics, which illustrate how applied gate voltage induces accumulation, depletion, or inversion of carriers in the semiconductor, thereby controlling current flow.

Historically, MOS technology emerged in the mid‑20th century, with the first use of the term recorded in 1964, and quickly revolutionized electronics by enabling miniaturization, scalability, and efficiency.

Its evolution into CMOS (complementary MOS) circuits, which combine n‑type and p‑type MOSFETs, further reduced power consumption and increased performance, cementing CMOS as the dominant technology in integrated circuits from the 1980s onward.

Today, MOS structures are not only central to digital logic but also critical in analog circuits, image sensors, RF transceivers, and power electronics, making them indispensable across nearly every domain of technology.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor is the architectural foundation of the information age, embodying the ability to control matter at the atomic scale for computation, communication, and control.

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